Phenomenological Single-Particle
Modeling of Reactive Transport
in Semiconductor Processing
Chapter 3 Knudsen Diffusive Transport
Recently, increased research attention has been placed on the development of one-dimensional (1D) diffusion-based reactive transport models due to their applicability in atomic layer deposition (ALD) [109, 110, 111], following their introduction to aid the design of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) reactors in 1999 [50]. These models have as advantages their relatively straightforward implementation and the ability to provide physically meaningful insight. These diffusive transport approaches are based on Knudsen diffusion, that is, the diffusivity stems from molecule-geometry collisions instead of the conventional molecule-molecule interactions. Since its inception in the early 20th century by Martin Knudsen [72], the development of the theory of Knudsen diffusion has been littered with misconceptions [112], requiring corrections calculated by Smoluchowski [113] and Clausing [114, 115]. Nonetheless, many of these misconceptions persist to this day, possibly due to the well-established status of the theory which is often applied without critical examination.
This chapter presents a more rigorous discussion of Knudsen diffusive processes based on the excellent but often-overlooked work by Pollard and Present [116, 117]. First, some properties of ideal gases, stemming from the kinetic theory of gases, are reviewed. Then, the equations of Knudsen diffusion are reformulated in a more modern manner, including their analogy to radiative heat transfer and the role of the view factor. The classical result of the diffusivity coefficient in long cylinders is recovered, while problems originating from attempting to derive the commonly-used hydraulic diameter approximation for rectangular trenches [109, 110] are discussed. An approach to capture the transitional flow for intermediate Knudsen numbers, the Bosanquet approximation, is also reviewed. Finally, the original research contributions of this dissertation are presented.
Own contributions: A novel extension to Knudsen diffusion, including the role of the direct flux, is derived, following the work presented at the IWCN 2019 [118] and ALE 2019 [119] conferences. Additionally, two unpublished applications of Knudsen diffusion to problems in semiconductor processing are discussed: Aspect ratio (AR) dependent reactive ion etching (RIE) in the neutral-limited regime and heteroepitaxial growth of 3C-SiC on Si micro-pillars.
3.1 Properties of Ideal Gases
In this section, the properties of ideal gases, that is, the fundamental results of the kinetic theory of gases, are shortly reviewed. They are the foundation of diffusive transport processes and must be carefully considered for a thorough discussion of reactive transport. All definitions follow Present [117], including the necessary adaptations in the labeling of variables for consistency.
Ideal gases, also named perfect gases, are a useful abstraction of real gas behavior under reasonable hypotheses. It is assumed that the gas is composed of molecules, defined as the smallest discrete quantity of a certain substance with defined chemical properties. This definition of molecule encompasses monoatomic gases (e.g., noble gases) and is used instead of "particle" throughout this chapter for consistency with the literature. The number of molecules must be large enough such that meaningful statistical information can be extracted from their average properties. These molecules are assumed to be separated from each other by a distance much greater than its molecular diameter, and they propagate on a straight line throughout a container with fixed volume. Upon colliding with each other or with the walls of the container, the molecules scatter perfectly elastically.
In essence, the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases hold for systems with low density and without particle acceleration due to, e.g., plasma sheath acceleration. Therefore, in the context of semiconductor processing the ideal gas approximation is well-suited for systems involving gas-phase neutral particles in a vacuum chamber, such as low pressure CVD or ALD. In such situations, the ideal gas law can be derived:
Due to the large number of involved molecules, the properties of an ideal gas system can be more precisely studied by analyzing their statistical behavior. The most crucial statistical property of a gas is the distribution function of
molecular velocities
As discussed in Chapter 2, the reactive transport models are intrinsically tied to the local impinging flux
By using Eqs. (3.1) and (3.4), the impinging flux can be summarized as
Additionally, the kinetic theory of gases enables a direct calculation of the mean free path
Finally, the first indications of diffusive transport behavior can be directly encountered by assuming that the concentration